Core Concepts of an
Integrative Transactional Analysis
Marye
O'Reilly-Knapp and Richard G. Erskine
Abstract
In
integrative transactional analysis, the conceptual constructs, theories,
and sub theories are organized into a theory of motivation, a theory of
personality, and a theory of methods. The theory of motivation examines
human functioning and the need for stimuli, structure, and relationship.
The theory of personality describes internal and external contact, interruptions
to contact, life script, and ego function. The theory of methods emphasizes
the power of a healing relationship. These theories and methods assist
clinicians in understanding human beings, in normalizing the functions
of psychological processes, and in healing through relationship.
______
This article
was written in collaboration with Vincent Barrone, Fred Clark, Joan D'Amico,
Landy Gobes, Burkhard Hofman, Fred Hufford, Joan Lourie, Carol Merle-
Fishman, Linda Perrin, Elizabeth Richards, Damon-Arthur Wadsworth, Martha
Walrath, and Joshua Zavin.
Core Concepts
of an Integrative
Transactional
Analysis
Eric
Berne's writings over a 15-year period outlined what he considered the important
concepts in transactional analysis theory. He had many brilliant ideas that
had a remarkable influence on both the general practice of psychotherapy
and the culture as a whole. His ideas and terminology regarding strokes,
games, script, ego states, and contracts are now part of the common lexicon
and are echoed both in popular publications and in the general psychotherapy
literature.
Writings
by Berne (1957/1977, 1961, 1972) on the concept of ego states give specific
definitions and descriptions of “archaic Child ego states” (Berne, 1961,
pp. 226-227) and the intrapsychic effects of an “influencing Parent ego state”
(Berne, 1972, p. 444). These writings focus on the intrapsychic dynamics
of ego states. Later, in seminar discussions, Berne shifted to behavioral
and transactional descriptions of ego states. Yet he recognized that his
theoretical work on ego states, and specifically the development of clinical
methods for working with both archaic regression and intrapsychic influence
of Parent ego states, was incomplete (Berne, 1961). He left it for future
generations of transactional analysts to challenge, refine, and further develop
transactional analysis theory and clinical practice (Berne, 1972).
Berne
identified and even developed many of the early core concepts in transactional
analysis, but he did not expand on or refine many other concepts, subtheories,
or treatment interventions. He also wrote very little on clinical methods.
Berne (1966) cited eight therapeutic operations that were psychoanalytic
in origin, and he provided some rudimentary examples of his therapeutic exchanges
with clients (Berne, 1961). He actively encouraged others to write about
their clinical experience, to develop theory, and to refine the core concepts
of transactional analysis. In fact, the Eric Berne Memorial Scientific Award
and the Eric Berne Memorial Award were created for that very purpose: to
encourage the development and refinement of transactional analysis theory
and methods. Since 1972, the articles for which these awards were given have
expanded the core concepts of transactional analysis and enriched both the
theory and clinical practice.
Berne
either did not realize how profound some of his ideas were, or he simply
did not develop some concepts. For example, the concept of stimulus or sensation,
recognition, and structure hungers (Berne, 1961) could have provided a metatheory—that
is, a transactional analysis theory of motivation. However, Berne (1966)
merely simplified it into a taxonomy of time structure, and his original
glimpses into the significance of “hungers” as a system of motivation were
thus lost. Consequently, transactional analysis theory has, until recently,
lacked an adequate explanation of motivation (Erskine, 1995/1997d).
Toward
the end of his life, Berne (1972) wrote a book on scripts that was actually
published posthumously: What Do You Say After You Say Hello?: The Psychology
of Human Destiny. In it he primarily examined the child hood origin of
such unconscious life plans. He was interested in how the life script (formed
by parental programming, injunctions, modeling, fairy tales, and decisions
in childhood) influenced later adult behavior and current important relationships,
determined the nature of fantasies and selected memories, and affected general
health in adult life. However, other than providing cognitive awareness,
Berne did not describe therapeutic methods for the treatment of these unconscious,
destructive beliefs, feelings, and behavioral patterns as manifested in the
adult client.
Over
the last 25 years, a long series of articles have defined an integrative
transactional analysis. Beginning in 1975 with “The ABC's of Effective Psychotherapy,”
Erskine (1975/ 1997a) identified how transactional analysis could be integrative
of the client's personality when addressing the cognitive, affective, and
behavioral domains during psychotherapy. Afective, cognitive, behavioral,
and physiological domains represent examples of where the client is open
or closed to contact, and they provide the clinician with an awareness of
avenues for therapeutic direction. This integrative concept was also central
in “The Racket System: A Model for Racket Analysis” (Erskine & Zalcman,
1979) and “Script Cure: Behavioral, Intrapsychic, and Physiological” (Erskine,
1980/ 1997b). Ware (1983) and Joines (1986) expanded the concept of identifying
where clients are open or closed to contact and applied it to standard diagnostic
categories. In addition, Cornell (1975, 1997) espoused the importance of
integrating touch and neo-Reichian body therapies with transactional analysis.
Recent
writings in integrative transactional analysis have focused on principles
of psycho therapeutic practice and a theory of motivation (Erskine, Moursund, & Trautmann,
1999). The transactional analysts who are writing and practicing from an
integrative perspective have based their theoretical foundations solidly
on Eric Berne's concepts and have also turned to other theories and writers
for challenge, validation, and cross-fertilization of ideas (Bary & Hufford,
1990; Christoph-Lemke, 1999; Clark, 2001; Gobes, 1990; Guistolise, 1996;
Korol, 1998; Little, 1999; Loria, 1991; Lourie, 1996; Matze, 1991; O'Reilly-Knapp,
2001a, 2001b; Putnam, 1996; Salinger, 1996; Small, 1996; Spitz, 1996).
Integrative
Concepts
Several
theoretical models illustrate the fundamental concepts of integrative psychotherapy.
The conceptual constructs, theories, sub theories, and interrelated ideas
are organized into three classes of theory: motivation, personality, and
methods. A theory of motivation pro vides both a comprehensive understanding
of human functioning and a metaperspective that encompasses and unifies the
theories of personality and methods. The biological imperatives of stimulus
hunger, structure hunger, and relationship hunger provide such a theory of
human motivation.
Classical
transactional analysis writings have not emphasized a theory of motivation
that ex plains human functioning while providing an organizing frame for
understanding both theories of personality and methods. Steiner's (1974)
writings on strokes and English's (1977, 1987, 1988) writings on “existential
patterns” that emanate from survival, expressive, and quiescence drives are
early attempts to provide a transactional analysis theory of motivation.
Four
visual models illustrate the theories of personality in an integrative transactional
analysis. The concepts of internal and external contact and interruptions
to contact are represented in the self-in-relationship model (Figure 1).
This model identifies the cognitive, affective, behavioral, and physiological
domains as well as the interpersonal space of contact with others. It provides
an avenue for therapeutic direction (Erskine & Trautmann, 1993/1997b).
Figure 1
The Self-in-Relationship System
The
model of the script system (Figure 2) and Berne's (1961) original model of
ego states illustrate the core concepts of life script and ego function.
Each of these models is a clinical tool that can be used to identify both
behavioral manifestations and intrapsychic processes of contact disruption,
life script, or ego state conflicts. The conceptual model of ego states (Figure
3) illustrates the dynamics of a Parent ego state's internal influence on
a dependent Child ego state fixated in a previous develop mental period of
time. The script system further elaborates on the intrapsychic components
of an archaic system of survival reactions, conclusions, and decisions that
are designed to repress archaic needs and feelings. The behavioral display,
internal physiological experiences, fantasies, and reinforcing memories confirm
the script beliefs and maintain interruptions to contact (Erskine & Zalcman,
1979).
Figure 2
The Script System
Figure 3
States of the Ego
The
theory of methods is based on the premise that script cure occurs in the
contactful, healing relationship between client and therapist.
The “Keyhole” (Figure 4) is a visual diagram of the theory of methods. This
theory and mod el emphasizes contact with self (an intrapsychic process)
and external contact-in-relationship (an interpersonal process). Inquiry,
attunement, and involvement are categories of many therapeutic transactions
and comprise “sets of con tact-facilitating, relationship-oriented methods”
(Erskine & Trautmann, 1996/1997a, p. 22). The concepts of inquiry, attunement,
and involvement represent an array of methods that are central to the therapeutic
relationship and crucial for reorganization of personality that leads to
script cure.
Figure 4
Methods of an Integrative Psychotherapy
Integrative
transactional analysis thus has a coherent theory of motivation, personality,
and methods that provides theoretical consistency and unifies the link between
motivation and personality and also gives direction to therapeutic methods.
Fundamental
Principles
The
central philosophical orientation—the fundamental principles—of integrative
psycho therapy include:
- Acknowledging that people are relation
ship seeking and interdependent through out life
- Affirming the innate value of human
beings
- Normalizing the functions of psychological
processes
- Committing to positive life change
- Focusing on internal and external contact
as essential to human functioning
- Emphasizing the developmental process
of the individual
- Recognizing the significance of the
therapeutic relationship
These principles
guide integrative transactional analysts in their therapeutic methods by
pro viding a value system about therapeutic process and, especially, the
relationship of the client with the therapist.
Motivation,
Contact, and Relationship
Acknowledging
that people are relationship seeking gives meaning to a theory of motivation
that describes the human being's need for stimuli, structure, and relationship.
Berne (1963) wrote: “A striving for intimacy under lies the most intense
and important operations” (p. 159). Integrative psychotherapy has integrated
Berne's concepts of the hungers within a contact-and-relationship framework.
Attention is given to the biological imperatives of stimulus, structure,
and relationship hungers as a theory of motivation.
Stimulus: “Stimuli
operate both internally and externally and provide the information al feedback
system that leads to the satisfaction of basic needs” (Erskine, 1995/ 1997d,
p. 12).
Structure: “Structure
hunger is the drive to organize experience . . . [an] innate drive to form
perceptual patterns and configurations . . . that create meaning and predictability
and . . . organize the continuity of experience over time” (Erskine, 1995/
1997d, p. 12).
Relationship: “Satisfaction
of relation ship hunger depends on the awareness of relational needs (internal
stimulus), what the individual believes about self and others in the interpersonal
relationships (structure), and the behavior of the other person in the relationship
(external stimulus)” (Erskine, 1995/1997d, p. 13).
All three hungers
are important since disruption in any one may cause overcompensation in at
least one of the others. For example, a person who does not have a meaningful
relationship may use overstructure to compensate for the lack of relationship.
Berne (1961) wrote that “stimuli are necessary in order to assure the integrity
of the neopsyche and the archeopsyche. If the flow [of stimuli] is cut off
or flattened into monotony, it is observed that the neopsyche becomes disorganized
. . . and finally archeopsyche function becomes disorganized as well” (p.
83).
Contact
is also an important part of a theory of motivation. Focusing on internal
and external contact is viewed as essential to human functioning. Internal
contact consists of “sensations, emotions, ideas, fantasies, wants, and needs”
(Erskine, Moursund, & Trautmann, 1999, p. 4). Relationship with others
is also an important component of motivational theory. One of the major premises
of integrative psychotherapy is that the need for relationship is “a primary
motivating experience of human behavior, and contact is the means by which
the [relational] need is met” (Erskine & Trautmann, 1996/1997a, p. 20).
Contact with self (all of our sensations, feelings, memories, thoughts, wants,
needs, desires, fantasies) and with others (our relationships) are affected
by how open or closed we are to contact. Defensive protections keep us closed
off to contact; dissolving of the defenses opens us to contact. The therapeutic
relationship then provides both an opportunity for dissolving the defensive
positions built on archaic beliefs and decisions and a focus on living in
the now by achieving satisfaction of today's relational needs with family
and friends.
Relational
needs are included in the theory of motivation. “Relational needs are the
needs unique to interpersonal contact” (Erskine & Trautmann, 1996/1997a,
p. 28). These relational needs are considered in two domains: the here and
now and the archaic ego. When life experiences have been integrated (Adult
ego state), then relational needs are based on the here-and-now relationship.
In contamination of the Adult ego through either archaic fixations (Child
ego states) or introjections (Parent ego states), present adult needs are
compromised. In the therapeutic relationship, unintegrated Parent and Child
fragments are addressed through an understanding of how the archaic needs—needs
unrequited in early relationships —are enacted in the transference. Relational
needs—that is, needs important throughout the life cycle—include: the need
for security, where protection is experienced in the relation ship; validation,
affirmation, and significance within relationship; acceptance by a stable
and dependable other person; confirmation of one's personal experience by
the other; self-definition, where one's uniqueness can be expressed and accepted
by another; the need to impact another; the need to have the other initiate;
and the need to express love (pp. 28-31).
Personality
Organization
Ego
states, transference, and the script system are the principle concepts identified
within a theory of personality in integrative transactional analysis. The
archaic Child ego states and the introjected Parent ego states are viewed
as separate states of the ego that have not become integrated through life
experiences. Defensive mechanisms stabilize and protect the individual, but
this stability restricts the spontaneity, intimacy, and flexibility so essential
for growth.
Knowledge of
ego defense mechanisms is integral to understanding ego state functioning
and how ego states are activated. It is because of the fixation of defense
mechanisms that the archaic (Child) or introjected (Parent) aspects of ego
remain separate states and do not become integrated into neopsychic (Adult)
awareness. (Erskine & Moursund, 1988, p. 23)
These developmental
fixations are analyzed by taking into consideration “a four-part correlation
of the behavioral, social, historical, and phenomenological determinants
of ego states” (Erskine, 1991/1997e, p. 136).
Transferential
transactions are identified within the perspective of ego states as a manifestation
of either an archeopsychic or exteropsychic ego state where there is an intrapsychic
conflict between two or more of the ego states (Erskine, 1991/1997e, p. 139).
Transference is viewed as:
- The means whereby the client can de
scribe his or her past, the developmental needs that have been thwarted,
and the defenses that were erected to compensate;
- The resistance to full remembering and,
paradoxically, an unaware enactment of childhood experiences [the repeated
relationship];
- The expression of an intrapsychic conflict
and the desire to achieve [the satisfaction of relationship needs and]
intimacy in relationships [the therapeutically needed relationship]; or
- The expression of the universal psychological
striving to organize experience and create meaning. (p. 143)
The
script system reflects the script-driven responses and the patterns of transferential
transactions that emerge in the therapeutic relationship. Working with script
within the script system allows the therapist to focus on three dimensions:
behavioral, intrapsychic (affective and cognitive), and physiological. The
focus is always on where the person is open or closed to contact. The script
system addresses the intra psychic beliefs and feelings, behaviors, fantasies,
memories, and physiological experiences.
The script
system . . . provides a model for understanding the systematic dynamics among
the intrapsychic, behavioral, and physiological dimensions of life script.
The script system diagrams how the intra psychic reactions (defensive conclusions
and decisions) and introjections that form the core of the life script are
organized as script beliefs; how these core beliefs are manifested in behavior,
fantasy, and physiological tensions; and how an individual structures his
or her perceptions and interpretations of experience to provide the reinforcement
of script beliefs. (Erskine, 1994/1997c, p. 57)
The reorganization
of personality occurs in the integration of affective, cognitive, and physiological
intrapsychic processes with manifested behavior through a contactful, therapeutic
relationship.
Inquiry,
Attunement, and Involvement
The
processes of inquiry, attunement, and involvement are categories of specific
methods. Each of these categories are “sets of contact- facilitating and
relationship-oriented methods” (Erskine & Trautmann, 1996/1997a, p. 22).
Inquiry: “The
process of inquiry involves the therapist being open to discovering the client's
perspective while the client simultaneously discovers his or her sense of
self with each of the therapist's awareness- enhancing statements or questions.”
(p. 22)
Attunement: “Attunement
is a two-part process: It begins with empathy—that is, being sensitive to
and identifying with the other's sensations, needs, or feelings—and the communication
of the sensitivity to the other person.” (p. 24)
Involvement: “Therapeutic
involvement that includes acknowledgment, validation, normalization, and presence diminishes
internal defensive processes.” (Erskine & Trautmann, 1996/1997a, p. 31)
Inquiry, attunement,
and involvement are central to the theory of methods and provide a framework
for conceptualizing the principle methods of integrative psychotherapy. The
theory of methods affirms the innate value of human beings and recognizes
the significance of the therapeutic relationship.
The
goal of an integrative transactional analysis is for the client, in the relationship
with the therapist, to discover and understand intrapsychic processes and
defensive mechanisms. Empathic therapeutic inquiry, attunement, and involvement
allow the client to enact the psychic process and its defenses in the therapeutic
relationship. The intrapsychic functions of predict ability, identity, consistency,
and stability are considered in helping the client move out of old defenses
and distortions. The therapeutic relationship is used as the “between” space,
that is, between the old protective patterns and a new way of relating (Erskine,
Moursund, & Trautmann, 1999, p. 239).
Sensitivity
to the client's developmental level of psychological functioning is an important
part of the methodology. Attunement to the developmental level means being
aware of and responsive to the client's behaviors and experiences at the
level of regression. “The purpose of the developmental focus is to respond
to the client at the age level at which there was a lack of contact-in-relationship,
when fixations occurred in the representational system of self, others, and
the quality of life” (p. 27). The age of the client's experiences is considered
in order to acknowledge, validate, and normalize these experiences. “Through
an inquiry into the history, expectations, coping, choices, decisions, and
vulnerabilities, phenomenological, transferential, and defensive levels of
experience may come to the foreground” (Erskine & Trautmann, 1996/1997a,
p. 23). The unrequited needs of childhood fixated in figure or ground, and
the defenses enacted as compensation become the focus of psychotherapy.
As
the client experiences acknowledgment and validation in the therapeutic relationship,
what was not given to that person in the early experience may come to the
foreground. The relationship with the therapist triggers an awareness of
the lack of relationship in the original trauma or neglect. The juxtaposition
reaction is described as intense emotional responses sparked by the therapist's
contact with the client (Erskine & Trautmann, 1996/1997a, p. 33). The
phenomenon of juxtaposition “occurs when there is, for the client, a marked
contrast between what is provided in the therapeutic relationship and what
was needed and longed for but not provided in previous relationships” (Erskine,
Moursund, & Trautmann, 1999, pp. 151-152). A conflict is created out
of the need for contact and the realization of the missing relationship.
Understanding the phenomenon of juxtaposition may assist the therapist in
identifying interruptions in contact and the client in understanding what
was needed.
Disruptions
in contact also occur in the ruptures or interruptions of the therapeutic
relationship. Examining the ruptures or interruptions may provide client
and therapist with in formation and understanding about archaic failures
and remnants that affect relationships today. Repair in the therapeutic relationship
provides for the exploration of the relationship failure in the now and,
ultimately, for a better understanding of the repetitive, archaic failures
(Erskine, 1994/1997c).
Another
avenue to cognitive, affective, behavioral, and physiological awareness is
in a supportive regression. Within such a regression, the client, in the
presence of the therapist, can explore his or her original fixations and
introjections. In this process, “a client can re examine relationships, access
and change old decisions, and heal the cumulative trauma of childhood through
enacting and experiencing in fantasy what was not available in reality” (Erskine,
Moursund, & Trautmann, 1999, p. 63). The purpose of the regression is
to identify conflicts in earlier developmental levels, to provide an opportunity
to explore historical and phenomenological experiences, and to identify what
patterns continue in present relationships.
Confrontation
is a specific method used to bring into awareness a discrepancy between contradictory
thoughts and behaviors. In this particular process, the focus is on the client's
defensive position and the implications of this defensiveness for present-day
relationships (O'Reilly-Knapp, 2001a, 2001b). For the client to face such
defenses and the purpose of such protections, a strong therapeutic relationship
is crucial. Also important is an empathic confrontation that takes into account
respect for and sensitivity to the client's position. An integrative transactional
analysis article by Clark (1991) proposed empathic transactions in “regulating
the intensity and directness of trans actions during different phases of
treatment” (p. 92). In an established therapeutic relation ship, confrontation
can be very useful.
Another
method that warrants attention is free association. Free association is similar
to the psychoanalytic method in that the client is invited to say whatever
comes into his or her mind. The one exception is that free association within
integrative transactional analysis involves the therapist in relationship
with the client. This is done by having the therapist as a witness to the
client's free associations and as an active partner in selectively expressing
what he or she thinks and feels. The therapist's presence allows for underscoring,
elaborating, and clarifying, all of which leads to inquiring and validating
and thus acknowledging the significance of the client's experience.
The
last component to be included is body work, a major dimension of script cure.
The treatment goal in body script work “is to energize the body tissue that
was inhibited and rigidified in the repression of the unmet needs and primal
feelings” (Erskine, 1980/1997b, p. 154). Physiological reactions can be observed,
such as in tightening of the body musculature and changes in breathing patterns.
Internal experiences that are not readily observable can be accessed by inquiring
into the person's phenomenological experience. Working directly with body
structures may include touch, muscle massage, altering breathing patterns,
and encouraging and/or inhibiting movements (Erskine, 1980/1997b). The physiological
domain must be aligned with the other three domains —the cognitive, affective,
and behavioral. When integrated, these dimensions of human functioning help
the person to live more fully in the present.
Conclusion
Berne
gave transactional analysts a strong foundation on which to build and to
develop further his ideas. Integrative transactional analysis has taken Berne's
ideas on hungers and developed a theory of motivation—the biological imperatives
of stimulus hunger, structure hunger, and relationship hunger. Ego states
and intrapsychic processes, life script, and contact and interruptions to
contact are central to a theory of personality. The processes of inquiry,
attunement, and involvement are categories of specific methods that are contact
facilitating and relationship oriented. The categories of methods are manifestations
of the theory of methods: healing is in the contactful, therapeutic relationship.
The
theory of motivation, theory of personality, and theory of methods are represented
by four models. The model for the theory of motivation is represented by
the dynamic balance of the biological imperatives of stimulus, structure,
and relationship hungers. The model of personality is represented in the
self-in-relationship diagram, Berne's conceptual ego state model, and the
script system. The “Keyhole” —which represents the interplay of inquiry,
attunement, and involvement—is a schematic of the theory of methods. Congruence
and unity between the integrative transactional analysis theories of motivation,
personality, and methods assist the psychotherapist in understanding human
beings, in normalizing the functions of their psychological processes, and
in healing through relationships.
Just
as Berne criticized the theory and methods of Freudian psychoanalysis, he
also challenged those with whom he worked to refine and add to the theory
and methods of transactional analysis. We, in following Berne's style of
criticism and challenge, invite others to refine and add to the theory of
transactional analysis. The task for all of us, no matter what school we
identify with—the San Francisco school of transactional analysis, redecision
therapy, the Cathexis school of transactional analysis, or integrative transactional
analysis— is to help our clients reach an optimal level of well-being. As
our clients achieve script cure and grow to understand and appreciate their
own uniqueness, may we, too, continue to develop and refine our theories
and methods.
Richard
G. Erskine, Ph.D., TSTA, is Training Director of the Institute for Integrative
Psychotherapy, New York.
Marye
O'Reilly-Knapp, D.N.Sc., CTA, is in private practice in Devon, Pennsylvania,
and also is an assistant professor at Widener University School of Nursing.
The
collaborators on this article are all members of the Professional Development
Seminar of the Institute for Integrative Psycho therapy, Kent, Connecticut,
U.S.A.
Please
send reprint requests to Richard G. Erskine, Ph.D., 500 E. 85th St.,
New York, NY 10028, U.S.A.
REFERENCES
Bary, B. B., & Hufford,
F. M. (1990). The six advantages to games and their use in treatment. Transactional
Analysis Journal, 20, 214-220.
Berne, E. (1961). Transactional
analysis in psycho therapy: A systematic individual and social psychiatry. New
York: Grove Press.
Berne, E. (1963). The
structure and dynamics of organizations and groups. New York: Grove
Press.
Berne, E. (1966). Principles
of group treatment. New York: Grove Press.
Berne, E. (1972). What
do you say after you say hello?: The psychology of human destiny. New
York: Grove Press.
Berne, E. (1977).
Ego states in psychotherapy. In E. Berne, Intuition and ego states: The
origins of transactional analysis (P. McCormick, Ed.) (pp. 121-144).
San Francisco: TA Press. (Original work published 1957)
Christoph-Lemke,
C. (1999). The contributions of transactional analysis to integrative psychotherapy. Transactional
Analysis Journal, 29, 198-214.
Clark, B. D.
(1991). Empathic transactions in the deconfusion of child ego states. Transactional
Analysis Journal, 21, 92-98.
Clark, F. (2001).
Psychotherapy as a mourning process. Transactional Analysis Journal, 31, 156-160.
Cornell, W.
(1975). Wake up “sleepy”: Reichian techniques and script intervention. Transactional
Analysis Journal, 5, 144-147.
Cornell, W.
(1997). Touch and boundaries in transactional analysis: Ethical and transferential
considerations. Transactional Analysis Journal, 27, 30-37.
English, F.
(1977). What shall I do tomorrow? Reconceptualizing transactional analysis.
In G. Barnes (Ed.), Transactional analysis after Berne: Teachings and
practices of three TA schools (pp. 287-347). New York: Harper's College
Press.
English, F.
(1987). Power, mental energy, and inertia. Transactional Analysis Journal,
17, 91-98.
English, F.
(1988). Whither scripts? Transactional Analysis Journal, 18, 294-303.
Erskine, R.
G. (1997a). The ABC's of effective psycho therapy. In R. G. Erskine, Theories
and methods of an integrative transactional analysis: A volume of selected
articles (pp. 227-288). San Francisco: TA Press. (Original work published
1975)
Erskine, R.
G. (1997b). Script cure: Behavioral, intra psychic, and physiological. In
R. G. Erskine, Theories and methods of an integrative transactional analysis:
A volume of selected articles (pp. 151-155). San Francisco: TA Press.
(Original work published 1980)
Erskine, R.
G. (1997c). Shame and self-righteousness: Transactional analysis perspectives
and clinical interventions. In R. G. Erskine, Theories and methods of
an integrative transactional analysis: A volume of selected articles (pp.
46-67). San Francisco: TA Press. (Original work published 1994)
Erskine, R.
G. (1997d). The therapeutic relationship: Integrating motivation and personality
theories. In R. G. Erskine, Theories and methods of an integrative transactional
analysis: A volume of selected articles (pp. 7- 19). San Francisco: TA
Press. (Original work published 1995).
Erskine, R.
G. (1997e). Transference and transactions: A critique from an intrapsychic
and integrative perspective. In R. G. Erskine, Theories and methods of
an integrative transactional analysis: A volume of selected articles (pp.
128-146). San Francisco: TA Press. (Original work published 1991)
Erskine, R.
G., & Moursund, J. P. (1988). Integrative psychotherapy in action. Newbury
Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Erskine, R.
G., Moursund, J. P., & Trautmann, R. L. (1999). Beyond empathy: A
theory of contact-in- relationship. Philadelphia: Brunner/Mazel.
Erskine, R.
G., & Trautmann, R. L. (1997a). Methods of an integrative psychotherapy.
In R. G. Erskine, Theories and methods of an integrative transactional
analysis: A volume of selected articles (pp. 20-36). San Francisco:
TA Press. (Original work published 1996)
Erskine, R.
G., & Trautmann, R. L. (1997b). The process of integrative psychotherapy.
In R. G. Erskine, Theories and methods of an integrative transactional
analysis: A volume of selected articles (pp. 79-95). San Francisco: TA
Press. (Original work published 1993)
Erskine, R.
G., & Zalcman, M. J. (1979). The racket system: A model for racket analysis. Transactional
Analysis Journal, 9, 51-59.
Gobes, L. (1990).
Ego states—Metaphor or reality? Transactional Analysis Journal, 20, 163-165.
Guistolise,
P. G. (1996). Failures in the therapeutic relationship: Inevitable and necessary? Transactional
Analysis Journal, 26, 264-288.
Joines, V.
(1986). Using redecision therapy with different personality adaptations. Transactional
Analysis Journal, 16, 152-160.
Korol, J. A.
(1998). Confluence, isolation, and contact in psychotherapy with clients
who dissociate. Transactional Analysis Journal, 28, 111-120.
Little, R.
(1999). The shame loop: A method of working with couples. Transactional
Analysis Journal, 29, 141- 148.
Loria, B. R.
(1991). Integrative family therapy: A constructivist perspective. In B.
R. Loria (Ed.), The Stanford papers: Selections from the 29th ITAA
conference (pp. 35-41). Madison, WI: Omnipress.
Lourie, J.
(1996). Cumulative trauma: The nonproblem problem. Transactional Analysis
Journal, 26, 276-283.
Matze, M. G.
(1991). Commentary on transactions in the context of transference. Transactional
Analysis Journal, 21, 141-143.
O'Reilly-Knapp,
M. (2001a). Between two worlds: The encapsulated self. Transactional Analysis
Journal, 31, 44-54.
O'Reilly-Knapp,
M. (2001b). Therapeutic love, intellectual truth, and theoretical understandings:
A clinical application of the theory and methods of integrative psychotherapy. Transactional
Analysis Journal, 31, 274-282.
Putnam, J.
(1996). Reflections of a integrative psycho therapist. Transactional Analysis
Journal, 26, 289-292.
Salinger, R.
A. (1996). Therapeutic involvement: The bull becomes attuned. Transactional
Analysis Journal, 26, 203-302.
Small, L. (1996).
A brief sketch by an integrative psycho therapist. Transactional Analysis
Journal, 26, 303-306.
Spitz, S. (1996).
An integrative approach to psycho therapy: A case study. Transactional
Analysis Journal, 26, 307-311.
Steiner, C.
(1974). Scripts people live: Transactional analysis of life scripts. New
York: Grove Press.
Ware, P. (1983). Personality adaptations:
Doors to therapy. Transactional Analysis Journal, 13, 11-19.
This
article was first published in the Transactional Analysis Journal, Vol.
33, No. 2, pp. 168-177. Reprinted with permission of the ITAA
|
